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What is a general ledger account?

 A general ledger account is an account or record used to sort and store balance sheet and income statement transactions. Examples of general ledger accounts include the asset accounts such as Cash, Accounts Receivable, Inventory, Investments, Land, and Equipment. Examples of the general ledger liability accounts include Notes Payable, Accounts Payable, Accrued Expenses Payable, and Customer Deposits. Examples of income statement accounts found in the general ledger include Sales, Service Fee Revenues, Salaries Expense, Rent Expense, Advertising Expense, Interest Expense, and Loss on Disposal of Assets.

 Some general ledger accounts are summary records which are referred to as control accounts. The detail that supports each of the control accounts will be found outside of the general ledger in what is known as a subsidiary ledger. For example, Accounts Receivable could be a control account in the general ledger, and there will be a subsidiary ledger which contains each customer's credit activity. The general ledger accounts Inventory, Equipment, and Accounts Payable could also be control accounts and for each there will be a subsidiary ledger containing the supporting detail.

 A listing of a company's general ledger accounts is found in its Chart of Accounts.

Introduction to Debits and Credits

If the words "debits" and "credits" sound like a foreign language to you, you are more perceptive than you realize—"debits" and "credits" are words that have been traced back five hundred years to a document describing today's double-entry accounting system.

Under the double-entry system every business transaction is recorded in at least two accounts. One account will receive a "debit" entry, meaning the amount will be entered on the left side of that account. Another account will receive a "credit" entry, meaning the amount will be entered on the right side of that account. The initial challenge with double-entry is to know which account should be debited and which account should be credited.

Before we explain and illustrate the debits and credits in accounting and bookkeeping, we will discuss the accounts in which the debits and credits will be entered or posted.

What Is An Account?

To keep a company's financial data organized, accountants developed a system that sorts transactions into records called accounts. When a company's accounting system is set up, the accounts most likely to be

affected by the company's transactions are identified and listed out. This list is referred to as the company's chart of accounts. Depending on the size of a company and the complexity of its business operations, the

chart of accounts may list as few as thirty accounts or as many as thousands. A company has the flexibility of tailoring its chart of accounts to best meet its needs.

Within the chart of accounts the balance sheet accounts are listed first, followed by the income statement accounts. In other words, the accounts are organized in the chart of accounts as follows:

Assets

Liabilities

Owner's (Stockholders') Equity

Revenues or Income

Expenses

Gains

Losses

Click here to see a sample chart of accounts.

Double-Entry Accounting

Because every business transaction affects at least two accounts, our accounting system is known as a double-entry system. (You can refer to the company's chart of accounts to select the proper accounts.

Accounts may be added to the chart of accounts when an appropriate account cannot be found.)

For example, when a company borrows $1,000 from a bank, the transaction will affect the company's Cash

account and the company's Notes Payable account. When the company repays the bank loan, the Cash

account and the Notes Payable account are also involved.

If a company buys supplies for cash, its Supplies account and its Cash account will be affected. If the company

buys supplies on credit, the accounts involved are Supplies and Accounts Payable.

If a company pays the rent for the current month, Rent Expense and Cash are the two accounts involved. If a

company provides a service and gives the client 30 days in which to pay, the company's Service Revenues

account and Accounts Receivable are affected.

Although the system is referred to as double-entry, a transaction may involve more than two accounts. An example of a transaction that involves three accounts is a company's loan payment to its bank of $300. This transaction will involve the following accounts: Cash, Notes Payable, and Interest Expense.

(If you use accounting software you may not actually see that two or more accounts are being affected due to the user-friendly nature of the software. For example, let's say that you write a company check by means of your accounting software. Your software automatically reduces your Cash account and prompts you only for the other accounts affected.)

Special Feature Review what you are learning by working the three interactive crossword puzzles dedicated to this topic. They are completely free.

Click here for the Debits and Credits Crossword Puzzles

Debits and Credits

After you have identified the two or more accounts involved in a business transaction, you must debit at least one account and credit at least one account.

To debit an account means to enter an amount on the left side of the account. To credit an account means to enter an amount on the right side of an account.

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How do you write off a bad account?

 There are two ways to write off a bad account receivable. One is the direct write-off method and the other occurs under the allowance method.

 Under the direct write-off method a company writes off a bad account receivable after the specific account is found to be uncollectible. This write off usually occurs many months after the account receivable and the credit sale were recorded. The entry to write off the bad account will consist of 1) a credit to Accounts Receivable in order to remove the amount that will not be collected, and 2) a debit to Bad Debts Expense to report the amount of the loss on the company's income statement.

 Under the allowance method a company anticipates that some of its credit sales and accounts receivable will not be collected. In other words, without knowing the specific accounts that will become uncollectible, the company debits Bad Debts Expense and credits Allowance for Doubtful Accounts. This Allowance account is a contra receivable account and it allows the company to report the net amount of the receivables that it expects will be turning to cash prior to identifying and removing a specific account receivable. When a specific customer's account does present itself as uncollectible, the customer's account will be written off by crediting Accounts Receivable and debiting Allowance for Doubtful Accounts.

 In the U.S. the direct write-off method is required for income tax purposes. However, for financial reporting purposes the allowance method means recognizing the loss (the bad debts expense) closer to the time of the credit sales. As a result, the allowance method is more in line with the accountants' concept of conservatism and may result in a better matching of the bad debt expense with the credit sales.

What is a trade discount?

 A trade discount is a reduction to the published price of a product. For example, a high-volume wholesaler might be entitled to a 40% trade discount, while a medium-volume wholesaler is given a 30% trade discount. A retail customer will receive no trade discount and will have to pay the published or list price. The use of trade discounts allows for having just one published price for each product.

 The sale and purchase will be recorded at the amount after the trade discount is subtracted. For example, when goods with list prices totaling $1,000 are sold to a wholesale customer entitled to a 30% trade discount, both the seller and the buyer will record the transaction at the net amount of $700.

 Trade discounts are different from early-payment discounts. (Early-payment discounts of 1% or 2% are likely to be recorded by the seller as a sales discount and by the buyer using the periodic inventory method as a purchase discount.)

Introduction to Accounts Receivable and Bad Debts Expense

If we imagine buying something, such as groceries, it's easy to picture ourselves standing at the checkout, writing out a personal check, and taking possession of the goods. It's a simple transaction—we exchange our money for the store's groceries.

In the world of business, however, many companies must be willing to sell their goods (or services) on credit. This would be equivalent to the grocer transferring ownership of the groceries to you, issuing a sales invoice, and allowing you to pay for the groceries at a later date.

Whenever a seller decides to offer its goods or services on credit, two things happen: (1) the seller boosts its potential to increase revenues since many buyers appreciate the convenience and efficiency of making purchases on credit, and (2) the seller opens itself up to potential losses if its customers do not pay the sales invoice amount when it becomes due.

Under the accrual basis of accounting (which we will be using throughout our discussion) a sale on credit will:

Increase sales or sales revenues, which are reported on the income statement, and

Increase the amount due from customers, which is reported as accounts receivable—an asset reported on the balance sheet.

If a buyer does not pay the amount it owes, the seller will report:

A credit loss or bad debts expense on its income statement, and

A reduction of accounts receivable on its balance sheet.

With respect to financial statements, the seller should report its estimated credit losses as soon as possible using the allowance method. For income tax purposes, however, losses are reported at a later date through the use of the direct write-off method.

Recording Services Provided on Credit

Assume that on June 3, Malloy Design Co. provides $4,000 of graphic design service to one of its clients with credit terms of net 30 days. (Providing services with credit terms is also referred to as providing services on account.)

Under the accrual basis of accounting, revenues are considered earned at the time when the services are provided. This means that on June 3 Malloy will record the revenues it earned, even though Malloy will not receive the $4,000 until July. Below are the accounts affected on June 3, the day the service transaction was completed:

In this transaction, the debit to Accounts Receivable increases Malloy's current assets, total assets, working capital, and stockholders' (or owner's) equity—all of which are reported on its balance sheet. The credit to Service Revenues will increase Malloy's revenues and net income—both of which are reported on its income statement.

Introduction to Income Statement

The income statement is one of the major financial statements used by accountants and business owners. (The other major financial statements are the balance sheet,

statement of cash flows, and the

statement of stockholders' equity.) The income statement is sometimes referred to as the profit and loss

statement (P&L), statement of operations, or statement of income. We will use income statement and profit and loss statement throughout this explanation.

The income statement is important because it shows the profitability of a company during the time interval specified in its heading. The period of time that the statement covers is chosen by the business and will vary. For example, the heading may state:

"For the Three Months Ended December 31, 2012" (The period of October 1 through December 31, 2012.)

"The Four Weeks Ended December 27, 2012" (The period of November 29 through December 27, 2012.)

"The Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 2013" (The period of July 1, 2012 through June 30, 2013.)

Keep in mind that the income statement shows revenues, expenses, gains, and losses; it does not show cash receipts (money you receive) nor cash disbursements (money you pay out).

People pay attention to the profitability of a company for many reasons. For example, if a company was not able to operate profitably—the bottom line of the income statement indicates a net loss—a banker/lender/creditor

may be hesitant to extend additional credit to the company. On the other hand, a company that has operated profitably—the bottom line of the income statement indicates a net income—demonstrated its ability to use

borrowed and invested funds in a successful manner. A company's ability to operate profitably is important to current lenders and investors, potential lenders and investors, company management, competitors, government agencies, labor unions, and others.

The format of the income statement or the profit and loss statement will vary according to the complexity of the business activities. However, most companies will have the following elements in their income statements:

A. Revenues and Gains

1. Revenues from primary activities

2. Revenues or income from secondary activities

3. Gains (e.g., gain on the sale of long-term assets, gain on lawsuits)

B. Expenses and Losses

1. Expenses involved in primary activities

2. Expenses from secondary activities

3. Losses (e.g., loss on the sale of long-term assets, loss on lawsuits)

If the net amount of revenues and gains minus expenses and losses is positive, the bottom line of the profit and loss statement is labeled as net income. If the net amount (or bottom line) is negative, there is a net loss.

A. Revenues and Gains

1. Revenues from primary activities are often referred to as operating revenues. The primary activities of a retailer are purchasing merchandise and selling the merchandise. The primary activities of a manufacturer are producing the products and selling them. For retailers, manufacturers, wholesalers, and distributors the revenues resulting from their primary activities are referred to as sales revenues or sales. The primary activities of a company that provides services involve acquiring expertise and selling that expertise to clients. For companies providing services, the revenues from their primary services are referred to as service revenues or fees earned. (Some people use the word income interchangeably with revenues.)

It's critical that you don't confuse revenues with receipts. Under the

accrual basis of accounting, service

revenues and sales revenues are shown at the top of the income statement in the period they are earned or delivered, not in the period when the cash is collected. Put simply, revenues occur when money is earned, receipts occur when cash is received.

For example, if a retailer gives customers 30 days to pay, revenues occur (and are reported) when the merchandise is sold to the buyer, not when the cash is received 30 days later. If merchandise is sold in

December, the sale is reported on the December income statement. When the retailer receives the check in January for the December sale, the retailer has a January receipt—not January revenues.

Similarly, if a consulting company asks clients to pay within 30 days of receiving their service, revenues occur (and are reported) when the service is performed (earned), not 30 days later when the consulting company receives the cash from the client.

If an attorney requires a client to prepay $1,000 before beginning to research the client's case, the attorney has a receipt, but does not have revenues until some of the research is done.

If a company sells an item to a buyer who immediately pays for it with cash, the company has both a receipt and revenues for that day—it has a cash receipt because it received cash; it has sales revenues because it sold merchandise.

By knowing the difference between receipts and revenues, we make certain that revenues from a transaction are reported only once—when the primary activities have been completed (and not necessarily when the cash is collected).

Let's reinforce the distinction between revenues and receipts with a few more examples. (Keep in mind that all of the examples below assume the accrual basis of accounting.)

A company borrows $10,000 from its bank by signing a promissory note due in 90 days. The company

will have a receipt of $10,000 at the time of the loan, but it does not have revenues because it did not earn the money from performing a service or from a sale of merchandise.

If a company provided a $1,000 service on January 31 and gave the customer until March 10 to pay for the service, the company's January income statement will show revenues of $1,000. When the money is actually received in March, the March income statement will not show revenues for this transaction. (In March the company will report a receipt of cash and a reduction/collection of an accounts receivable.)

A company performs a $400 service on December 31 and receives the $400 on the very same day (December 31). This company will report $400 in revenues on December 31—not because the company had a cash receipt on December 31, but because the service was performed (earned) on that day.

On December 10, a new client asks your consulting company to provide a $2,500 service in January. You are uncertain as to whether or not this client is credit worthy, so to be on the safe side you ask for an immediate partial payment of $1,000 before you agree to schedule the work for January. Although your consulting company has a receipt of $1,000 in December, it does not have revenues in December. (In December your company will record a liability of $1,000.) Your consulting company will report the $1,000 of revenues when it performs $1,000 of services in January.

2. Revenues from secondary activities are often referred to as nonoperating revenues. These are the amounts a business earns outside of purchasing and selling goods and services. For example, when a retail business earns interest on some of its idle cash, or earns rent from some vacant space, these revenues result from an activity outside of buying and selling merchandise. As a result the revenues are reported on the income statement separate from its primary activity of sales or service revenues.

As is true with operating revenues, nonoperating revenues are reported on the profit and loss statement during the period when they are earned, not when the cash is collected.

Here's a Tip

Don't confuse revenues with receipts—

Revenues (operating and nonoperating) occur when a sale is made or when they are earned. Revenues are frequently earned and reported on the income statement prior to receiving the cash.

Receipts occur when cash is received/collected.

3. Gains such as the gain on the sale of long-term assets, or lawsuits result from a transaction that is outside of the primary activities of most businesses. A gain is reported on the income statement as the net of two amounts: the proceeds received from the sale of a long-term asset minus the amount listed for that item on the company's books (book value). A gain occurs when the proceeds are more than the book value.

Consider this example: Assume that a clothing retailer decides to dispose of the company's car and sells it for $6,000. The $6,000 received for the car (the proceeds from the disposal of the car) will not be included with sales revenues since the account Sales is used only for the sale of merchandise. Since this retailer is not in the business of buying and selling cars, the sale of the car is outside of the retailer's primary activities. Over the years, the cost of the car was being depreciated on the company's accounting records and as a result, the money received for the car ($6,000) was greater than the net amount shown for the car on the accounting records ($3,500). This means that the company must report a gain equal to the amount of the difference—in this case, the gain is reported as $2,500. This gain should not be reported as sales revenues, nor should it be shown as part of the merchandiser's primary activities. Instead, the gain will appear in a section on the income statement labeled as "nonoperating gains" or "other income". The gain is reported in the period when the disposal occurred.

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